语言项目建设的理想模式：以商务汉语为例
王海丹
夏威夷大学马诺阿分校
摘要 本文在特别目的语教学的理论研究和实践经验的基础上，探讨了经济全球化和数字时代的背景下语言教学发展的关键因素。通过对美国高校中汉语为目的语教学和研究结果的论述，本文着重论述了一个成功的商务汉语项目的关键点。商务汉语教学旨在训练学生在不同学科中发展专业技能的能力，已经普遍发展为特别目的语教学。文章最后还探讨了商务汉语教学领域未来的发展方向。
关键词 汉语特别目的语 项目建设 课程设置 项目评估 跨学科语言项目
Introduction：The State of LSP programs
From traditional European models of foreign language instruction serving the needs of international corporations,the field of Language for Specific Purposes（LSP）has expanded from a strictly business focus to a more general focus on language for specific purposes.This shift satisfies the increasing demand for professionals who can function in various workplace contexts as well as academia.LSP has emerged as a full and active area within the broader field of applied linguistics,and has become an important concentration in language programs in higher education（Hyland，2009）.A comprehensive survey of LSP programs offered in the U.S.（Long&Uscinski，2012）has demonstrated the sophistication and variety of course offerings that extend beyond what is already established in the general language curriculum.
The Chinese economy measured by annual GDP has continued to grow robustly for the last two decades,despite recent economic fluctuation.English is already an established lingua franca for international business in much of the world,and is a required skill to be considered for employment at many Chinese companies.Nevertheless,Chinese language proficiency outside of China is increasingly a great asset in global business.Because of this,the demand for business Chinese education has surged tremendously.A series of surveys of business Chinese offerings in the U.S.（Chen，2012；Li,et al，2013）has revealed the growing popularity of business Chinese in language programs.The increasing number of business Chinese programs offered in higher education indicates students demand,and indicates that additional Chinese for Specific Purposes（CSP）programs that go beyond what a general Chinese foreign language program can offer should be developed.
A well-designed CSP program can not only meet the growing demand of institutions and potential employers,but also provide alternative opportunities for students to achieve the professional language proficiency level with specialized language training enriched with cultural competency.Through a comprehensive review of research and practices in the U.S.for the past two decades,this paper proposes an ideal model for creating a successful and effective Chinese for Specific Purposes program.The goal of a CSP program should be to help learners meet language demands in target situations and gain entrance and acceptance in corresponding working and living environments（Basturkmen&Elder，2004）.The development of a CSP program should include three stages：needs analysis and assessment,curriculum design with examination of instructional materials and approaches,and utilization-focused program evaluation.
Needs Analysis and Assessment：Systematic and Ongoing
Needs analysis is commonly recognized as a central component of curriculum development,and the need determines LSP curriculum goals and objectives（Fryer，2012；Hyland，2009）.Generally known as the process of systematically collecting and analyzing all necessary data,a good needs analysis provides a rational basis that may lead to a defensible curricula that satisfies learning and teaching requirements for particular contexts（Brown，2009）.It includes four major components：identifying stakeholders,gathering necessary information,using appropriate instruments,and making decisions based on the analysis report.
Wang（2011）suggests four major groups of CSP stakeholders.The primary group is composed of language program graduates who are working in the target special purpose area.These individuals are able to identify gaps between the language learned and the demands of the real world.The second group are professionals from presumably the target specific purpose areas who may or may not have multilingual language proficiency,but who may provide insight regarding the tasks performed in different positions and expectations for a given field.The third group includes university administrators with clear institutional goals and curriculum designers who have“perceived needs”（Frendo，2005）.The fourth group is learners enrolling in the CSP program,who have“felt needs”.They are a better resource than students in general language programs because they may have working experience that gives them a better understanding of language needs.This last group includes the needs analysis for the CSP program.This group is critical to the analysis procedure because they willarticulate the identified needs and implement them in the curriculum design.This is not intended to be an exhaustive list of stakeholders and may need to be altered depending on the specific CSP program under development.
Needs analysis data is collected using triangulation techniques to increase the credibility of data and data interpretation（Long，2005）.Triangulation may be incorporated through theory triangulation（using multiple frameworks），methodological triangulation（using different survey methods such as meetings,observations,and questionnaires），among other methods.Gaining perspectives from diverse disciplines,on different occasions,and at different locations is also common.The content of the survey used for stakeholders from the first three groups may be very broad in scope,including but not limited to：their Chinese training background,additional（business）Chinese training,significant gaps between language training received and language use at work,situations they are unable to handle with their Chinese proficiency,culture shock they have experienced,and specific language needs including language skills and content knowledge.
Needs voiced from the stakeholders are both objective（i.e.actual needs from the workplace）and subjective（i.e.students'wants and expectations）.Data is mostly qualitative,and can be summarized in written report,clearly addressing the articulated Chinese language competencies[5]needed.Other research findings that provide a broader view for CSP program developers should also be incorporated into this research.Taken together,these resources form a sound foundation for curriculum design.
Both Long（2005）and Brown（2009）emphasized the importance of reliability and validity of needs analysis.Brown further highlighted the importance of replicability and generalizability of quantitative data,as well as the dependability,credibility,confirmability,and transferability of qualitative data.
Finally,needs analysis should not end when the curriculum is constructed.Due to the high degree of learner centeredness in LSP programs（Hyland，2009），needs analysis should be an ongoing process.Needs may change as the learners'goals,backgrounds,and language proficiency change,and this should be monitored through pre-and post-course surveys.Students'journals and self-reflections can also provide insights into what adjustments may be needed to effectively implement the curriculum.
Curriculum Design：Hybridization
Although some people argue that LSP is more practically oriented than theory driven（Basturkmen&Elder，2004；Dudley-Evans&St John，1998），the author agrees with Fryer（2012）that LSP requires a commitment to research-based language education and innovative practices.Program objectives may be set up by linking accurately identified needs with all parts of a given curriculum,including material selection,instructional approaches,testing and assessment of learning outcomes,and program evaluation.
For business Chinese,according to Wang（2014），needs analysis indicates that the curriculum should be content-based,pragmatics-enhanced,culturally-enriched,and technology-assisted.Instructional materials that include business content and context of relevance to the target special purpose should be carefully selected by examining available textbooks and other resources in order to identify and supplement gaps between textbook coverage and identified needs（Wang，2011）.Authentic materials that are used in the target special purpose field should be incorporated at all levels.Besides addressing the communicative skills orally and in writing,a well-constructed business Chinese curriculum should address culture equally from primary to advanced instructions.
Business Chinese instruction in the U.S.higher education is largely conducted in mixed classes with students from various learning backgrounds and language profiles（Chen，2012；Zhou&Wang，2015）.The diversity of learners'backgrounds demands the content need to be filled with real-world language uses andtasks（Babanoury，2005）and business routines（Hong，1996），regardless of the course levels.Task-based teaching（Chen，2012），including case studies（Yuan，2006；Guan，2014），simulations（Chen，1998），project-based learning（Zhou&Wang，2015），individualized instruction（Christensen&Bourgerie，2015），and action-based learning（Zhou，2014）are commonly used in business Chinese instruction in order to connect learners to the real business world and allow them to solve various problems in authentic or pseudo-authentic situations.
Pragmatic and intercultural training are increasingly taught through comparison and contrast in business Chinese programs（Hong，1996、1998；Wang，2007；Jiang,et al，2014）in order to deepen the learners'understanding of the both native and target cultures.Cultural information and suggestions can be integrated in business Chinese activities to help learners overcome cultural barriers and increase intercultural sensitivity and awareness（Zhang，2011；Gao，2014）.Besides cultural literacy,an approach incorporating multiple genres is also gaining popularity in CSP.This can facilitate communicative competence by immersing learners in fuller and more multifaceted images and authentic texts,mainly in business Chinese reading and writing（Chen，1998；Hong，1998；Zhu，2001）.
Contemporary learners are digital natives,and the effectiveness and versatility of technology-facilitated language instruction have been widely recognized in LSP programs.Business Chinese learning goals can be fully achieved online,even at the elementary level（Kuo，2005），can be conducted with or without an instructor（Zhang，2002），or can be conducted in a blended environment（Wang，2014）.Despite the challenges and limitations of blended learning,business Chinese supported by technology allows learners to visualize the target environment with situated,scenario-based communicative tasks,provides a platform for instructors to provide feedback or update culturally enriched authentic materials easily,and offers opportunities for exchanges with native speakers virtually without changing the regular classroom composition and dynamics.With ample opportunities for collaboration,processing,discussion and reflection,blended learning fosters learners'autonomy,and stimulates deep exploration of all involved learning processes（Wang，2014）.
Liu's（2004）promotion of using a combined approach to instruct businessChinese inspires the author to suggest hybridization,a term better describing the contemporary business Chinese evidenced in the practices and research published,many of which are cited in this article.A hybridized curriculum addresses the needs of stakeholders to the maximum,with the above mentioned multiple approaches that foster the CSP to the mainstream advanced by ESP research.
Assessment and Evaluation：Aiming for Utilization
The two important issues for a LSP program are learning outcome assessment and program evaluation,both of which emphasize usefulness and practicality.Generally,learners in LSP programs tend to be assessed through proficiency tests.Although these tests are useful,it is generally recognized that absolute authenticity in testing is not attainable（Basturkmen&Elder，2004）.CSP practitioners prefer using e-portfolios to assess learners'competency（Zhou，2016）in addition to regular classroom assessment.A more advanced version of this is to chart a student's Chinese using by how their audience perceives their professional-level performance using an online system[6]，with some video-taped evidence（McAloon，2015）that reflects the context-sensitive measures of LSP（Basturkmen&Elder，2004）.This multi-rater,multimedia,portfolio-based model is appealing to CSP program designers because of the feedback from highly proficient native speakers’in the learners’target professional domains.It may also benefit learners by providing ongoing feedback and effective communication.
Specific evaluation of CSP courses can be evidenced from students'reflection journals and feedback on students'achievement through proficiency tests.However,the accountability and credibility of the program must be demonstrated through program evaluation,which should include properly utilized evaluation results.CSP programs in the U.S.are usually established through special funding,thus remaining small despite the assumption that there will be continued growth in the Chinese economy（Chen，2012）.Instead of simply demonstrating how well we teach to our students'needs,an internally motivated evaluation benefits the program developers if they can demonstrate to funders,administrators,and stakeholders how the CSP program contributes to student learning.Showing that the intended positive results have been achieved reveals the value of a CSP.Less positive results will show what actions need to take place.These may include：reviewing program,revising course syllabi and approaches,and identifying possible gaps between practice and intended goals.An attainable model for CSP evaluation（Wang，2013）illustrates a framework that may benefit the program and provide tangible evidence of its benefits by focusing on utilization,facilitating problem-solving skills,and by encouraging heightened commitment during program building process.
CSP Future：Less Business,More Professional,Connection to the Community
The practice and review in this article has illustrated a method for CSP development：starting with needs analysis,hybridizing various approaches for curriculum design,and improving and sustaining the program with utilization-focused evaluation.Business Chinese education in the U.S.has expanded into LSP,which has been made more mainstream by ESP programs.Ambitious program goals have led to new directions in CSP,especially to blending specific content with real-world applications.The prosperity of the Chinese Language Flagship Centers in the U.S.for the past decades has propelled this movement,encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration beyond specific focus.Learning to serve the community is also promoted as an innovative model to contextualize LSP programs beyond campus and professional workplaces（Lear，2012）.With a variety of contexts,approaches and practices,CSP programs are expected to grow steadily and serve a broader audience.